Why Believe? The Moral-Ethical Ground of Belief in a Transcendent Being

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hTxFrxmY9dg&t=1222s  / Accessed 2020-04-15

(These are my notes [jkk's] on a lecture given by British philosopher of religion John Cottingham. It summarizes important arguments he makes in his book Why Believe [2009].)

The Fundamental Impetus of Belief 

The fundamental impetus or motor of belief in God in the tradition (particularly, in the Scriptures) is not in theoretical arguments or proofs about an omnipotent Being (although that is how it is usually discussed in the discipline called the philosophy of religion). The question of belief in the tradition is actually grounded first and foremost in morality,  in the question of 'how to live?'.

We can say then that the belief or faith is rooted in the moral and the experiential dimensions. The way we experience moral requirements and the way we experience, for example, the wonders of the natural world draw us to something beyond ourselves, to values that suggest the existence of something greater than ourselves. This can be a reason for why someone would choose to believe in a "Greater Something" commonly known as "God". 

Moral Values Make a Demand on Us

We can say that moral values make a "demand" on us: they require us to act in certain ways. For example, the goodness of compassion or the wrongness of cruelty makes a demand on us to be compassionate or to avoid  cruelty. That demand--we can say--suggests that certain things are inherently or even objectively good or evil, independently of our personal likes or dislikes. The demand that moral values make on us takes the general form 'do good and avoid evil'. 

What is the Ground of Morality Then?

One often hears these following questions that deal with the ground of morality. 

One is: Is morality a mere opinion or a "value judgment" of certain people? Is it just a question of certain people's opinion of how we should act in certain ways but without any objective ground for them? That kind of subjectivism was popular in the past. Now (according to John Cottingham) there is a preponderance among philosophers of a certain kind of objectivism which holds that there is a certain objective ground for why human beings should act in certain ways.

John Cottingham (JC) believes that this objectivism would be most "at home" in a belief in God, In other words, the best grounding of this objectivism would be the existence of a Transcencent Being, a kind of divine law-giver that has established objective moral principles. 

Are there other alternative sources for objectivity and morality? Human nature perhaps? This position would say that human nature itself is the source for why certain things are considered ethically right or wrong. That is certainly possible. But JC points out that human nature is not only good; it can be very imperfect or even downright evil. As the philosopher David Hume pointed out, "a particle of the dove is kneaded into our frame alongside elements of the wolf and serpent." JC therefore thinks that it can't be human nature alone that gives authority to certain moral principles. Traditional theism is a better option for giving us that objective authority. 

Some others may say moral values are just like mathematical values: they are simply true. JC finds the thought uninspiring that the basis for morality is like floating in an objective theoretical limbo. Again, he thinks that morality is better grounded in something such as traditional theism. 

And then there is an aesthetic component to this discussion. According to Immanuel Kant there are two things that inspire awe in us: the authority of the moral law and the starry heavens (the beauty of nature). That kind of "aesthetic" dimension (that elicits powerful human emotions) puts us in touch with a goodness that seems to be not merely a product of human nature but is grounded in a "Greater Something", a transcencent dimension that is the source of both the glory of the moral law and the wonders of nature.

So Why Believe Then?

So, why believe in a transcendent being? Why believe in God? We have seen that if we try to trace the possible source of why we humans are compelled to act and live in certain ways (i.e., avoiding evil and doing good - this is the moral-ethical dimension of life), we can glimpse that there might be a transcendent Being that is itself the objective source of all morality and ethics. Moreover, maintaining this moral order is itself a beautiful and glorious thing. This Transcendent Source of morality beckons us to trusting belief in it.

Of course, this does not prove God such as a mathematical proof would demonstrate some scientific principle. But John Cottingham thinks that it does support a belief in God/a Transcendent Being. 

**this summarizes John Cottingham's talk up 15:30***

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The Perennial Philosophy – Its Main Contours (acc to Roger Walsh)

Source: Roger Walsh, Essential Spirituality: The Seven Central Practices to Awaken Heart and Mind (Wiley, 1999), pp. 6-9.

[This is how spirituality teacher Roger Walsh MD, PhD explains the so-called "Perennial Philosophy." The main text is from Roger Walsh; my annotations (jkk) are found in brackets.]

The Perennial Philosophy

Thanks to global communication, for the first time in history, we have all the world's religions, their wisdom and their practices, available to us.  ... What do the different traditions have in common?

Beneath the hundreds of different cultures, claims, and customs, there lies a common core of both wisdom and practice at the heart of each authentic tradition. By "authentic tradition," I mean one capable of offering a direct experience of the sacred, and of fostering true spiritual growth and maturity in its practitioners. 

[The "direct experience of the sacred" is Roger Walsh's definition of spirituality. This is opposed to just believing in some teachings and doctrines because they were taught to you by some religious authorities. So if "a tradition" can offer a direct experience of the sacred, it can be considered an "authentic" (spiritual) tradition in Walsh's mind.]

Scholars called the essential common core of religious wisdom "the perennial wisdom" or "perennial philosophy." Why "perennial"? Because these profound insights into life have endured across centuries and cultures and have been taught by the great sages of all time

Developed over thousands of years, the perennial philosophy is a treasure house of humankind's curated wisdom. Vast in scope, profound in depth, it offers numberless insights into the nature of life and love, health and happiness, suffering and salvation.

At its heart lie four crucial claims--actually observations, since they are based on direct insights by advanced spiritual practitioners about reality and human nature.

[#1]  One. There are two realms of reality. The first is the every day realm with which we are all familiar, the world of physical objects and living creatures. This is the realm accessible to us via sight and sound and studied by sciences such as physics and biology.

But beneath these familiar phenomena lies another realm far more subtle and profound: a realm of consciousness, spirit, Mind or Tao (Way 道). This world cannot be known through the physical senses and only indirectly through the physical instruments of science. Moreover, this realm creates and embraces the physical realm and is its source. This domain is not limited by space or time or physical laws, and hence it is unbounded and infinite, timeless and eternal.

[This worldview was standard and widely accepted in practically all cultures of the world before the European Enlightenment. It is still the default worldview in traditional cultures and communities. Since the Enlightenment, the rational and scientific worldview has become standard in the West and in other parts of the world.]

[#2] Two. Human Beings partake of both realms. We are not only physical but also spiritual beings. We have bodies but we also have at the core of our being, in the depths of our minds a centre of transcendent awareness. This centre is described as pure consciousness, mind, spirit or Self and is known by such names as the neshamah  of Judaism, the soul or “divine spark” of Christianity, the atman of Hinduism or the "Buddha nature" of Buddhism. This divine spark is intimately related to--some traditions even say inseparable from and identical with--the sacred ground or foundation of all reality. We are not divorced from the sacred but eternally and intimately linked to it.

[#3] Three. Human beings can recognize their divine spark and the secret ground that is its source. What this implies--this is absolutely crucial--is that the claims of the perennial philosophy do not have to be accepted blindly. Rather each of us can test them for ourselves and decide their validity based on our direct experience.  Although the soul or innermost Self, being non-physical, cannot be known by the senses or the instruments of science, it can be known by careful introspection.

[Related to claim #3 is philosopher Ken Wilber's claim that the spiritual dimension can be experienced, and even validated through a process that is akin to what we know as a "scientific" method. See: http://spiritual-notandyet-religious-jkk.blogspot.com/2020/10/can-we-prove-existence-of-god-or-realm.html ]

This is not necessarily easy. Although anyone can be graced with spontaneous glimpses, clear sustained vision of our sacred depths usually requires significant practice to clarify awareness sufficiently. This is the purpose of spiritual practice. When the mind is still and clear, we can have a direct experience of our “Self.” This is not a concept of, nor an intellectual theory about, the Self. Rather, it is an immediate knowing, a direct intuition in which one not only sees the divine spark but also identifies with and recognizes that one is the spark. Sages from Judaism and Sufism, from Plato to Buddha, from Eckhart to Lao Tsu have agreed on this. 

…  Compared to this direct realization of the sacred, mere book learning and theoretical knowledge are very poor substitutes, as far removed from direct experience as a text on human reproduction is from the embrace of a lover. 

[#4] Four. The perennial philosophy's fourth claim is that realizing our spiritual nature is the summum bonum: the highest goal and greatest good of human existence. Beside this, all other goals pale; all other delights only partly satisfy. No other experience is so ecstatic, no other attainment so rewarding, no other goal so beneficial to oneself or others.  ...

Again this is not wild dogma to be accepted merely on the word of others or on blind faith. Rather, it is an expression of the direct experience of those who have tasted these fruits for themselves. Most importantly, it is an invitation to all of us to test and taste for ourselves.

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If we distill these four claims down to their essential essence, what do we find? The central ringing cry of the perennial philsophy is this: We have underestimated ourselves tragically. We are sadly mistaken when we see ourselves as merely temporary bodies instead of timeless spirit; as separate, suffering selves instead of blissful Buddhas; as meaningless blobs of matter instead of blessed children of God. 

The words differ from one tradition to another but their central message is the same: You are more than you think! Look deep within, and you will find that your ego is only a tiny wave atop the vast ocean that is your real Self. Look deep within, and you will find that your ego is only a tiny wave atop the vast ocean that is your real Self. Look within, and at the center of your mind, in the depths of your soul, you will find your true Self, that this Self is intimately linked to the sacred, and that you share in the unbounded bliss of the sacred. 

This recognition is the goal of the great religions and it is known by names such as salvation and satori, enlightenment and liberation, fana and nirvana, awakening and Ruach Ha-qodesh. But whatever the name, the great religions all exist to help us discover our true Self and our true relationship to the sacred. This discovery, they agree, is the supreme joy and greatest goal of human life. 

The Perennial Practices

How to achieve this discovery of our true self is the central question of life, and it is here that the great religions offer their greatest gift. Each of them contains a set of practices designed to help us reach this goal. Whether they be the commandments and contemplations of Judaism, Islam, and Christianity, the yogas of Hinduism, or the disciplines of Taoism, each tradition offers spiritual practices that awaken. 

Among the many spiritual practices, there are seven that are common to authentic religions and that we can therefore call perennial practices. These perennial practices were discovered by the religious founders and have been used by millions of men and women around the world. Now their universal nature can be recognized. Essential Spirituality (Walsh’s book) explains the seven perennial practices and offers exercises for applying them in all aspects of life so that you , too, can enjoy the many benefits they offer. 

[The heart of Roger Walsh's book 'Essential Spirituality' is to introduce readers to seven central practices to awaken mind and heart. For a summary of these practices, see: http://spiritual-notandyet-religious-jkk.blogspot.com/2020/11/the-seven-practices-that-awaken-heart.html  ]

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